["itemContainer",{"xmlns:xsi":"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance","xsi:schemaLocation":"http://omeka.org/schemas/omeka-xml/v5 http://omeka.org/schemas/omeka-xml/v5/omeka-xml-5-0.xsd","uri":"https://history.santacruzpl.org/omeka/items/browse?tags=Military&page=4&sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CCreator&sort_dir=d&output=omeka-json","accessDate":"2024-03-28T02:25:56-07:00"},["miscellaneousContainer",["pagination",["pageNumber","4"],["perPage","10"],["totalResults","32"]]],["item",{"itemId":"134391","public":"1","featured":"1"},["fileContainer",["file",{"fileId":"20828"},["src","https://history.santacruzpl.org/omeka/files/original/7c94975325ae43b6ab7fb8dc268a1dab.pdf"],["authentication","6087a409b057b46ce7d64114ded9d62d"],["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"7"},["name","PDF Text"],["description"],["elementContainer",["element",{"elementId":"94"},["name","Text"],["description"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1899609"},["text","Una Storia Segreta\nBy Lawrence DiStasi, Adele Negro and Rose Scherini\n\nUNA STORIA SEGRETA (the words in Italian mean both a secret story and a secret history), was developed by the\nAmerican Italian Historical Association's Western Regional Chapter. It is dedicated to those who endured the confusions\nand losses of the wartime largely in silence. By giving them voice now, we hope that others will be encouraged to fill out\nthis story—one we believe is not only worth telling, but crucial to understanding what has shaped us all.\n\nPreface\n\"Why Not Do An Exhibit?\" In March of 1993, at a conference sponsored by the American Italian Historical Association's\nWestern Regional Chapter, Una Storia Segreta had its inception. During that half day, a panel of speakers for the first\ntime bore public witness to the ways in which the wartime restrictions had marked their lives. No one could hear what\nhad happened to Italian Americans in those dark days without realizing that far more remained to be told. The question\nwas, how? At the close of the conference, Maria Gloria, one of the participants and a longtime columnist for L'Italo\nAmericano, passed on a thought: \"Why not do an exhibit?\" Had any of us suspected what this would entail, or where it\nmight lead, Una Storia Segreta might have been stillborn. As it was, innocence prevailed, and we set out to try.\nInitial attempts to raise funds met with little success. The California Council for the Humanities considered the project's\nappeal \"limited\" and its premises questionable. Many in the community remained distant, cautious. Yet with the\nencouragement of a handful of supporters, the dedication of several members, and the help of a few individual\ndonations, the exhibit opened at the Museo Italo Americano in San Francisco on February 24, 1994—the anniversary of\nthe fateful day in 1942 when thousands of Italian Americans in California had to evacuate homes and lives suddenly off\nlimits to them. The press responded to the exhibit in an unprecedented way: cover stories appeared in the San Francisco\nExaminer and in several Gannett newspapers, and a report on CNN was broadcast worldwide. Crowds at the Museo\nwere among the largest ever recorded there, culminating on March 27 with an Open Forum that played to a standingroom-only crowd.\nDue to prior commitments by the Museo, the exhibit closed in San Francisco on March 28, but its second life was about\nto begin. The Italian Cultural Society of Sacramento managed to secure the Rotunda of the State Capitol in Sacramento\nas the first traveling site. Thousands saw it there, the Governor signed a Proclamation attesting to its importance, and\nthe Legislature passed a Resolution to the same effect.\nSince then, Una Storia Segreta has grown in a way no one could have predicted. Donations to allow it to travel have\ncome from each sponsoring organization on its 1993 tour: Sacramento, Santa Rosa, Pittsburg, San Jose, Monterey and\nOakland. In Monterey, it received its most significant improvement to date: The Italian Heritage Society of Monterey Bay\ndonated funds so that each of the 18 foamcore panels (which were never designed to take the rigors of travel) could be\ntrimmed and framed in black metal, and a wooden crate built for shipping. This has readied the exhibit to open in Los\n1\n\n�Angeles in 1995 and then to proceed to the East Coast for appearances in New York and other major cities eager to host\nit.\nMost importantly, the secret history whose outlines Una Storia Segreta helped uncover has continued to flesh itself out.\nThis story has remained hidden for 50 years because of the silence—first imposed by the government, then adopted as\nprotective cover by those affected—that has always surrounded it. Not only has the story been suppressed from\nhistorical accounts, but the Italian American community itself has remained largely unaware of its existence. With the\nexhibit, memories have been jogged, eyes have been opened, voices have been found. New stories—always specific to\neach place, always imbuing the exhibit with the particular flavor of local experience—have emerged in a steady, and\nsteadily expanding flow.\nWe have learned details of the hardship borne by those who were targeted: in Pittsburg, evacuated families were so\nhard pressed to find housing that Bettina Troia, now 102 years old, had to live in a chicken coop; those named 'alien'\nwere so suspect that Nancy Billeci's father, trying to visit her mother giving birth in the County Hospital, was taken in\nhandcuffs to visit his newborn child; those who tried to keep their jobs were given humiliating choices, such as that\noffered to Angela Ardent's father-in-law at Mare Island Shipyards: \"just drop the 'e' from Ardente,\" he was told; thus did\nthe Italian 'Ardente' become the Americanized 'Ardent' ever after.\nIn Monterey, we heard similar stories. Joe Sollecito told of Rosina Trovato, who learned one day that both her son and\nher nephew had gone down with the \"Arizona\" at Pearl Harbor, and the next day that she had to leave her home. Vitina\nSpadaro remembered how her evacuated family, relieved to have found a rental at last, was thrown into new despair\nwhen the landlord learned they were Italian, and chased them away. John Mercurio related how naval officers appeared\nat his door two days after Pearl Harbor, ordered him and his father to sail their commandeered boat to San Francisco,\nand then ordered them to make their way home however they could. Other boat owners told the same story: U.S.\ncitizens all, all were told flatly that their boats were confiscated for the duration, and were left to make do—first with\nrented boats, then with their own boats returned in unusable condition.\nAs such tales accumulated, we began to see the underlying significance of these events. Though 600,000 Italian\nAmericans were branded 'enemy aliens' because they lacked citizenship, it was not just they who were scarred. Lelio\nSbrazza, an American citizen, was living in Berkeley at the time; because of his name, his hunting rifles were confiscated\nand never returned. Frank Brogno lived in Gary, Indiana during the war: his father, an American citizen, was visited by\nlocal firemen, who seized the Brogno's prized Philco radio—and the 'contraband' of others in Gary whose Italian names\nmade them suspect.\nMost poignant of all may be the plight of the women. Nino Aiello first told us about the Cable Act of 1916. According to\nits terms, his mother, American-born, lost her citizenship when she married an Italian man. Though she managed to get\nnaturalized before the war, others were not so lucky: Elaine Null, a postal employee, had to fingerprint her own mother\nas an alien—and only at the Pittsburg Open Forum found out why. Having married an Italian immigrant, her American\nmother thereby lost her citizenship, and had to register as an 'enemy alien.' Hope Cardinalli of Monterey found herself in\nthe same boat: an American-born citizen married to an Italian, she was ordered to evacuate from Monterey as an enemy\nalien. She refused, hired a lawyer, and was able to stay, but the insult remained.\nThe sum total of this becomes plain: the prejudice that, in America, had long attached to Italian-ness concentrated its\nvenom during the war. Many immigrants felt it as never before; their children felt it too. Their language had become the\n'enemy's language,' their heritage one that was not only alien, but inimical to the American way. It seemed best to\nabandon both, and thousands did just that. The results are with us still.\nNow, fifty years later, we who put together Una Storia Segreta are encouraged by the responses we have received, both\nlocally and nationally. Apprehensive at first that people might be disturbed by what we had assembled, we have come to\nrealize that the opposite is the case. Though some may quarrel with our perspective, and still others prefer that the past\nremain undisturbed, most Italian Americans who see the exhibit are released by it, uplifted. It is as if now, with the\n2\n\n�larger story in place at last, and with the knowledge that others have spoken out, they too have the right to be heard,\nfor their experiences have been publicly validated. Even thus late, even absent the voices of those who suffered most, is\nthis so.\nOur hope is that the process will continue. Our intention is that it will, that what has begun here will complete itself, and\nthat these long-buried events will take their rightful place in the true history of the homefront.\n[Signed:]\nLawrence DiStasi\nBerkeley, CA\n\nIntroduction\nItalian immigration to the West Coast, which began as early as the Gold Rush, reached full force around the turn of the\ncentury. By the 1930s the Italian population was at its peak: Italian Americans comprised the largest ethnic group not\nonly in San Francisco, but in the entire United States. The thirties were not easy for these immigrants, either politically\nor economically. The Depression caused financial hardship for most. In addition, Italy under Mussolini was split between\nthose who favored Il Duce's totalitarian policies, and those who opposed them. Fascists battled anti-fascists both underand above-ground. The battle crossed the ocean with the many anti-fascists who fled to exile in America.\nItalian communities like those in North Beach engaged in these disputes, not least in their newspapers. For the most\npart, however, the immigrant generation supported Mussolini. He seemed to have gained the world's respect for Italy by\nturning the old country into a disciplined modern nation. Much of the world press, including the major organs in the\nUnited States, portrayed him as a hero—the first modern leader to lift his nation out of post–World War I chaos and\nDepression.\nIn 1935, with his invasion of Ethiopia, the portrait began to change. The League of Nations imposed economic sanctions\non Italy. Many Italian Americans, following the lead of their Italian language press, saw this as a betrayal and continued\nto support the country where so many had relatives in the service. Some donated to the Italian Red Cross, while\nthousands of others sent gold wedding rings and copper postcards to support the Italian war effort. When Italy allied\nwith Germany and joined in the attack on France in 1940, however, the immigrants' worst fears were realized. Their\nAmerican sons might soon have to make war on their Italian relatives.\nWith the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 and the U.S. declaration of war on all three Axis powers, Italian\nAmericans and the formerly pro-fascist newspapers hastened to affirm their loyalty to their adopted country. It made\nlittle difference. The measures to come made many immigrants feel that they were being blamed for where they had\nbeen born.\nUna Storia Segreta documents some of what happened in the days following Pearl Harbor: the internment of\n\"dangerous\" aliens beginning on the night of December 7; the re-registration of all enemy aliens and restrictions on their\npossessions and movements; the evacuation of thousands of aliens from \"prohibited zones\" on the West Coast; and the\nenforcement, again on the West Coast, of a stringent 8PM to 6AM curfew. Failure to comply with any element could,\nand often did, lead to arrest and detention.\nSubsequent months (February through June 1942) were a time of fear and confusion. Rumors and newspaper articles\nreported that what all Californians were witnessing—the mass internment of Japanese Americans, both citizens and\naliens alike—was being considered in some form for Italian and German Americans as well. Executive Order 9066 had\nmade it possible to remove anyone, and General John DeWitt, the head of the Western Defense Command, seemed\neager to use it. No one knew what might happen, or when.\n\n3\n\n�By June, political and economic considerations caused all such plans to be abandoned. In October 1942, Italians were\nformally removed from the enemy alien classification, and allowed to return to prohibited zones. The ordeal was not\ncomplete, however. Ironically, this was the very time that a few naturalized citizens whom the Tenney Committee found\n\"dangerous\" received exclusion orders: they were ordered to move from Military Zones 1 and 2, which covered the\nmajority of California. Thus, even though most Italian aliens were no longer in the 'enemy alien' category, those interned\nin December 1941 and the newly excluded citizens remained in that category until the Fall of 1943, when Italy's fascist\ngovernment surrendered.\nDespite the years of research that went into it, Una Storia Segreta makes no claim to be complete: some government\ndocuments are still classified, and requests for data under the Freedom of Information Act can wait years for a response.\nStill, we believe that what is known must be told now, primarily so that similar episodes might be prevented in the\nfuture. In addition, no one who has spoken to those affected can fail to be moved by the impact these measures had on\nthem, their families, and their communities. Neither can one avoid the questions that arise. To what degree, for\nexample, did the targeting of those whose first language was Italian hasten the disuse of the Italian language? Aside\nfrom much anecdotal evidence, no studies exist to provide figures. We do know, however, that many immigrants, clubs,\nand stores made a point of not using Italian in public, while others stopped teaching the language to their children. The\nU.S. Government surely encouraged this trend by its poster proclaiming \"DON'T SPEAK THE ENEMY'S LANGUAGE. SPEAK\nAMERICAN!\"\nMuch more might and surely will be said about these and other long-lasting effects. For now we think it appropriate to\ngive the last words to Frances Cardinalli of Pittsburg, whose aging parents had to evacuate their home in Pittsburg and\nmove to Centerville, near Fremont. Referring to a photo of her mother in her Sunday best, we asked if that was how her\nmother looked on the day she had to leave.\n\"Oh God, no. It looked like a funeral. We were all dead. We couldn't part. We never were separated before.\"\nIf immigration itself constitutes a little death, then the wartime for many Italian immigrants, and their communities, may\ncome to be seen as yet another.\n\nPrelude to War\nBenito Mussolini came to power in 1922 with the now-famous March of his blackshirts on Rome. Although the American\nleft opposed him from the beginning, he was widely touted in the popular press as a \"black-shirted Garibaldi.\" The\nfascisti were compared to the Old West's vigilantes. Even Nation magazine ran an article during the 1932 Presidential\ncampaign entitled, \"Wanted: A Mussolini.\"\nThis adulation of the \"new Columbus\" extended through the early thirties. Delegation after delegation went for an\naudience with the Duce, coming away impressed with his energy, candor, and apparent ability to reshape the Italian\ncharacter (which Americans were sure needed reshaping). President Roosevelt sent several new cabinet members to\nlearn from Mussolini's social programs, including government support for the arts and social security. To Italian\nAmericans, this added fuel to their already inflamed hopes: Mussolini was helping them gain the respect of America and\nAmericans they had always lacked.\nWhen Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, respect changed to widespread revulsion. The expansion of fascism's dark side by\nNazi Germany accelerated this process, especially when Mussolini allied himself with Hitler in 1936. When Italy joined\nGermany's invasion of France in June of 1940, President Roosevelt's condemnation of the Duce as a \"jackal\" for having\nstruck a \"dagger\" into \"the back of his neighbor\" evoked few disclaimers.\nThe days from June 10, 1940 to December 7, 1941 were filled with anxiety for Italian Americans. Though they conveyed\ntheir dismay over FDR's choice of words, they sensed that the die had been cast. America would sooner or later side\n4\n\n�with Britain and France to defend what remained of Europe against fascist aggression. Mussolini's Italy had become in\nname, if not yet in fact, America's enemy. Italians and Italian Americans could soon be at war.\nIt took only a year. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 destroyed the remaining American reservations\nabout entering the battle. When the President a few days later declared war on Italy, Italian aliens (those immigrants\nwho, for whatever reason, had failed to complete the naturalization process) automatically became \"enemy\" aliens.\nThey were subject to whatever measures the government deemed necessary.\n\nInternment\nBeginning on the night of December 7, 1941, Japanese, German and Italian aliens were arrested by the FBI. How could\nthis happen? The U.S. had not declared war by that date.\nThe story actually begins in September 1939, when Britain and France declared war against the Axis nations of Germany\nand Italy (later to include Japan). President Roosevelt at that time asked FBI Director Hoover to compile a list of persons\nto be arrested in case of national emergency. Names placed on this Custodial Detention List eventually included proCommunists, anti-fascists, pro-fascists, pro-Nazis, and even some Jewish refugees.\nThe authority for these arrests came from Title 50 of the U.S. Code, based on the 1798 Alien & Sedition Acts, which gives\nthe government power to detain aliens in times of emergency.\nUnder this authority, hundreds of Italians were arrested in the months immediately after Pearl Harbor. About 250\nindividuals were interned for up to two years in military camps in Montana, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. By June of\n1942, the total reached 1,521 Italian aliens arrested by the FBI, many for curfew violations alone. Though most of the\nlatter were released after short periods of detention, the effects on them and others in the community are not hard to\nimagine.\nThe arrest and internment procedure in San Francisco followed this pattern: FBI officers arrived at night, searched the\nhome, and took the individual to an Immigration Service detention facility at Silver and Yale Avenues. The family was not\ninformed why the arrest was made or what would happen.\nArrestees were sometimes moved to another detention facility at Sharp Park (now in the city of Pacifica) where quonset\nhuts had been hurriedly set up on a golf course. Some were held there for as long as one year. Later, Italian prisoners of\nwar were also held at Sharp Park.\nMost of the arrestees were then shipped by train to Fort Missoula, Montana, where over 1,000 Italian nationals had\nbeen interned since May, 1941. These Italians were merchant marines whose ships had been impounded at Atlantic\nports after the European war began in 1939.\nIn Montana, the interned aliens were given pro\nforma hearings before boards consisting of military\nofficers and lay citizens. They were not informed of\nthe charges against them, nor were they\nrepresented by legal counsel. The information\nbefore the boards consisted entirely of FBI reports.\nResearchers have often noted, on examining FBI\nfiles, the many errors, the misinterpretation of\ninnocent acts, and the lack of rumor verification—\nall of which are found in these aliens' files.\nMost of the San Francisco internees were members Italian American internees watching a soccer game at Missoula.\nof the Ex-Combattenti, the Federation of Italian\n5\n\n�War Veterans in America. Veterans of World War I (when Italy and America were allies), they were apparently singled\nout because the group was on the FBI list of \"dangerous\" organizations. During the thirties, the veterans' main project\nhad been collecting and distributing funds for war widows and orphans in Italy. By 1941 the State Department had\ndecided that the receiving agencies in Italy were too \"closely identified\" with the Italian Government; continued\ndisbursal of monies to the Associazione Nazionale Famiglie dei Caduti in Guerra (National Association for Families of War\nDead) and various Community Welfare Funds was a violation of the 1939 U.S. Neutrality Act. The FBI then began\nsurveillance of individual members. FBI files do not, however, reveal any illegal or \"subversive\" activities. In fact, some\nex-combattenti who were openly anti-fascist or, at most, apolitical, were interned.\nItaly's surrender on September 8, 1943 brought about the release of most of the Italian American internees by year's\nend. Some had been paroled months earlier after \"exoneration\" by a second hearing board appealed for by their\nfamilies. Nonetheless, most of the men had spent two years as prisoners, moving from camp to camp every three to four\nmonths. Neither they nor their families would ever forget it.\n\nRestrictions\nIn January of 1942, all enemy aliens were required to register at local post offices around the country. Although all\nresident aliens had already registered in 1940 under the Smith Act, now as 'enemy' aliens they would be required to be\nfingerprinted, photographed, and carry their photo-bearing \"enemy alien registration cards\" at all times. To those\naffected this was alarming; in retrospect, it recalls the authoritarian methods of the very fascists it was meant to\ncombat.\nThen came a series of Army proclamations, some directed at all enemy aliens, some only for those on the West Coast:\n1. Travel: no travel beyond a five-mile radius of home; longer trips require application for travel permit.\n2. Contraband: all firearms, shortwave radios, cameras, and \"signaling devices\" (including flashlights) prohibited;\nall to be turned in or confiscated. Many were never returned.\n3. Curfew: enemy aliens on the West Coast confined to homes between 8:00 PM and 6:00 AM.\nThe impact of these restrictions was widespread and apparently unanticipated by the government. In places like\nMonterey, Santa Cruz, Pittsburg and San Francisco—where the Italians, many of them long-term residents without final\ncitizenship papers, constituted a majority of the fishermen, scavengers, restaurant workers and janitors—the restrictions\ncreated serious employment and food-supply problems.\nThe impact on personal lives can only be suggested. Because of the travel restrictions, mothers could not visit their\nchildren in hospitals if they were more than five miles away. Families could not attend a relative's funeral. No alien could\nmake a trip to visit distant friends or relatives, nor even to visit their own sons in uniform at military installations.\nFor the fishermen, the regulations seemed arbitrary at best, foolish or cruel at worst. In Pittsburg, the inland fishermen\nwere classed as an exempt industry and so were allowed to fish. However, Monterey and San Francisco fishermen (and\nall those who fished the Pacific Ocean) were restricted: the aliens could not go out on their boats, and scores of citizens\nwho owned large purse seiners had them confiscated by the Coast Guard for patrol duty. Giuseppe Spadaro's\n\"Marettimo\" was returned to him in such poor condition that he could not use it; before he could have it repaired, a\nstorm destroyed it altogether.\nIn the West, the curfew caused fear, suspicion and worse. Those picked up for violations were left to wonder if a\nneighbor had informed on them. Animosities festered and lingered. The legacy of all this is hard to calculate, but one\nthing seems evident: arresting a truck farmer unable to complete his delivery run by 8PM probably did little to help\nsecurity but much to destroy the trust necessary for community life. And whether such a person could ever trust their\ngovernment is something else again.\n6\n\n�Evacuation\nM For enemy aliens, February was the \"cruelest month.\" Fears of a Japanese invasion of the West Coast ran wild. After a\nJapanese submarine apparently landed some torpedoes in Santa Barbara, the pressure to move the Japanese population\nsoared. Italians and Germans, feeling the hysteria and reading news reports about the planned removal of all aliens to\ninland camps, feared the worst.\nThey were not far off. The order to evacuate \"prohibited\" zones along the California coast no later than February 24 was\ndirected at all enemy aliens. Italian aliens, along with their Japanese and German counterparts, began the wrenching\ntask of finding a place to live and leaving those they loved.\nThe total numbers who had to leave their homes is still unknown, but in places like Monterey, Pittsburg, and Santa Cruz,\nthousands had to move. In some cases, the new house might be only a block away; in others, it might require a trip of\nten, fifteen, or fifty miles. Without cars or freeways, such gaps between families seemed unbridgeable. For some it was\nunbearable. Among the several suicides reported in the newspapers was that of 65-year-old Martini Battistessa of\nRichmond, who threw himself in front of a train on February 21, 1942.\nEven aliens with sons or grandsons in the Armed Forces were not exempt from the move. One\nSan Francisco resident who had to leave his home near Fisherman's Wharf was the father of a\nserviceman killed at Pearl Harbor. In Santa Cruz, Steve Ghio came home on leave from the Navy\nto find the houses in his neighborhood boarded up. He could not find his parents or relatives until\nhe learned of their forced move and obtained a new address from the local police.\nThe immediate personal and economic effects of this evacuation were vivid enough. California's\nfishing fleet was decimated. Ninety-seven-year-old Placido Abono was moved from his Pittsburg\nhome to Oakley, ten miles away, on a stretcher.\nBy July, when the invasion scare had subsided and the entire Japanese–American population had\nbeen interned, the Army rescinded its order of evacuation. But many Italian aliens—some of\nwhom could not read Italian, let alone English—remained in the dark about this change too: the\nnotices that they could go home were simply posted in local post offices.\nAdditional ironies abound. Italian Americans were not only the largest ethnic group in the nation;\nthey were also the largest group in the Armed Forces. Nevertheless, parents and grandparents\nwere compelled to move from the homes where they had raised those now serving their country.\n\nCatherine Buccellato\nwith her son, Nick. Like\nmany others, Nick later\ncame home on leave to\nfind his house empty.\nWhile he had been\nserving his country, his\nmother had to evacuate\nher Pittsburg, CA home.\n\nAnother is that at a time when all human and food resources were needed for the war effort, many men and women\nhad to give up their jobs because they were located in prohibited zones. Thus, when large numbers of coastal fishermen\ncould no longer fish, the government poster, \"Fish is Fighting Food ...We need more,\" encouraged Americans to increase\nconsumption of that which its own policies had caused to be scarce.\nSuch ironies may evoke a smile now. At the time, the smile was likely to be tinged with disbelief: did the left hand know\nwhat the right was doing?\n\nExclusion\nThe Western Defense Commander, Lt. Gen. John L. DeWitt, wanted to remove not only aliens, but also naturalized\ncitizens from the \"sensitive\" military zones along the coast. He succeeded in removing even American-born Japanese–\nAmericans. However, after much debate and no little confusion for those concerned, Washington, particularly the\nAttorney General and the President, decided against removing Italians and Germans. The logistics, not to mention the\npolitical and economic repercussions, were too formidable. Nonetheless, DeWitt won a small victory when he was\nallowed to initiate an Individual Exclusion Program for naturalized citizens.\n7\n\n�In the Fall of 1942—after the Italians had been removed from the enemy alien classification—254 Italian and German\nnaturalized citizens received exclusion orders. These orders gave them ten days to move out of the designated zones.\nMost were German immigrants and West Coast residents, but some lived on the eastern and southern coasts of the\nUnited States.\nIn San Francisco, about 20 Italian–Americans, both men and women, were excluded. They were community leaders,\nItalian-language school instructors, staff of the pro-fascist Italian-language newspaper L'Italia, and members of the\nItalian War Veterans. Most were long-time residents of the city and had been naturalized citizens for many years.\nWhat led to the selection of these specific individuals for exclusion? The community leaders and L'Italia staff had been\nnamed as pro-fascists by witnesses before the State Legislature's UnAmerican Activities Committee at hearings held in\nSan Francisco in May of 1942. The hearings were held in the Borgia Room of the St. Francis Hotel, the irony of which\nnone of the senators seemed to recognize. The Tenney Committee—named after its chair, state Senator Jack Tenney—\nconcluded, after four days of testimony, that three community leaders, Sylvester Andriano, Ettore Patrizi and Renzo\nTurco, were \"the leaders of the Fascist movement in California.\" They further concluded that Patrizi's newspaper L'Italia,\nand the Italian-language school, DopoScuola, were centers of Fascist propaganda. Some of these names had previously\nbeen brought to the attention of the FBI, but it had made no arrests of any naturalized citizens.\nIn September the Army acted. It held individual hearings similar to those for the internees—no charges were made, no\nlegal counsel allowed. Then it served exclusion orders, commanding each individual to move out of Military Zones 1 and\n2, which covered about two-thirds of California. Ettore Patrizi, 77 years old, a U.S. resident and naturalized citizen since\n1899, received his exclusion order while hospitalized. Andriano and Turco, both attorneys, had to vacate their homes\nand law offices, and were unable to practice law where they relocated. Nino Guttadauro, president of the War Veterans\nand business manager of the Crab Fishermen's Protective Association, left San Francisco to find work and housing for his\nfamily, which he eventually found in Reno, the nearest city with available jobs.\nThese moves took place in October 1942, just before the Government announced that Italians were no longer \"enemy\naliens.\" That did not change the status of the \"dangerous\" aliens who had been interned earlier, nor of these naturalized\ncitizens who had now been excluded.\nThe excludees were allowed to return to their homes at the end of 1943, following Italy's surrender in September. Most\nhad spent about 15 months in exile. They had been reporting regularly to the FBI in cities like Reno where they had\nrelocated. Why the exclusion was necessary, and why the FBI could not have kept them under surveillance in their own\nhomes, has never been explained. After all, in October 1942, the invasion fears had greatly lessened...and opportunities\nfor sabotage were just as great in Reno as in San Francisco.\nThe same questions arise regarding those aliens evacuated from the coast. More than a few—Angelina Bruno of\nPittsburg was one—had moved to houses overlooking Army bases, where sabotage could have been a real possibility. It\nseemed not to matter. Neither did the fact that a large proportion of the Pittsburg evacuees were women and a few\nmen too old to fish. Were such people a threat? Were such lives disrupted to any good purpose?\n\nAftermath\nM We call this exhibit Una Storia Segreta for two reasons: one, the country, including the government, has never fully\nacknowledged these events; two, many of the families involved have never wanted to talk about it. Many were\nhumiliated by the treatment of spouses or relatives, and are still angry about it.\nMore than fifty years later, we are able to prepare this exhibit because of the persistence of a few researchers in probing\ngovernment archives, and the forthright responses of the families who do want their stories told.\nAside from these sources, surprisingly little has been written. One of the excludees, Remo Bosia, published a book in\n1971 about his experiences. In 1983 the report of the U.S. Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment included\n8\n\n�a chapter on German Americans, mentioning Italians only to say that the Justice Department had interned 264 of them.\nMore of the story was filled out with the publication in 1985 of John Christgau's book \"Enemies\": World War II Alien\nInternment, about German Americans interned in North Dakota, and again in 1990 with Stephen Fox's The Unknown\nInternment: An Oral History of the Relocation of ltalian Americans during World War II. Yet half a century later, the story\nremains incomplete. Some of the records remain classified, FBI files are censored, and requests for information can wait\nyears for a response.\nRecent attempts to obtain some redress for the wartime treatment do show signs of movement. At the 1992 California\nconvention of the Sons of Italy, their Social Justice Commission passed a resolution requesting \"full public disclosure of\nthe injustices suffered by Italo-Americans during World War II, and...that apology be made not only to Americans of\nItalian ancestry, but to the nation as a whole.\" One man, S.H. Bianchini of Monterey, was responsible for bringing this\nmatter to the attention of the Sons of Italy.\nUnfortunately, the response to this resolution from the U.S. Department of Justice addressed only the fact that \"a\nrelatively small number of ethnic Germans and Italians received individual exclusion orders in contrast to the mass\ndetention of Japanese Americans.\" Could it be that the current Department of Justice does not even know about the\nArmy-initiated internments and evacuations? And, even if they know, do they not think it important to acknowledge the\ninjustice done to thousands of Italians who had to evacuate their homes? In Canada, where Italian aliens were also\ninterned, the government issued a public apology in 1990.\nA number of initiatives recently begun by other groups in this country also suggest that the time for an Italian American\npetition is at hand. Interned German Americans have taken their case to the courts. Also preparing a court case are the\nJapanese Peruvians who, though unjustly and illegally sent to the U.S. to be interned, were not included in the 1988 Civil\nLiberties Act granting apologies and reparations to the interned Japanese Americans.\nThat the authorities of the time suspected an injustice is clear. In the FBI files of some Italian internees, researchers have\nfound copies of a July 1943 memo from Attorney General Francis Biddle, declaring his opinion that the Custodial\nDetention List was \"invalid;\" that the evidence used to declare an alien \"dangerous\" was inadequate because it lacked\nevidence of illegal actions; and that the episode was \"a mistake that should be rectified for the future.\"\nNevertheless, whenever conflict between the U.S. and another country erupts, the talk of internment of the nationals\ninvolved flares once again. During the Cold War, it was the Russians; then it was the Cubans; and as recently as the 1990\nGulf War, Iraqi Americans were threatened with internment.\nIt is time America realized what is fundamental to its creed: to condemn one of us on the basis of our origins, national or\notherwise, is to condemn us all.\n\nAdditional Information\n\n\nUna Storia Segreta: the secret history of Italian American evacuation and internment during World War II, edited\nand with an introduction by Lawrence DiStasi; foreword by Sandra M. Gilbert.\n\n9\n\n�Sources\n\n\n\nText and Photographs copyright 1994 American Italian Historical Association, Western Regional Chaper. Used\nby Permission.\nThis article is from the booklet that accompanied the exhibition Una Storia Segreta.—ed.\n\nThe content of this article is the responsibility of the individual author. It is the Library's intent to provide accurate local history\ninformation. However, it is not possible for the Library to completely verify the accuracy of individual articles obtained from a\nvariety of sources. If you believe that factual statements in a local history article are incorrect and can provide documentation,\nplease contact the Webmaster.\n\n10\n\n�"]]]]]]]]],["collection",{"collectionId":"8"},["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"1"},["name","Dublin Core"],["description","The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. 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Gilbert."]]]],["element",{"elementId":"45"},["name","Publisher"],["description","An entity responsible for making the resource available"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1892127"},["text","Santa Cruz Public Libraries"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"40"},["name","Date"],["description","A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1892128"},["text","1994-"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"42"},["name","Format"],["description","The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1892129"},["text","Text"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"44"},["name","Language"],["description","A language of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1892130"},["text","En"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"51"},["name","Type"],["description","The nature or genre of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1892131"},["text","ARTICLE"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"47"},["name","Rights"],["description","Information about rights held in and over the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1892133"},["text","Text and Photographs copyright 1994 American Italian Historical Association, Western Regional Chaper. Used by Permission."]]]],["element",{"elementId":"49"},["name","Subject"],["description","The topic of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1893000"},["text","Italian American Community"]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1893001"},["text","Wars-World War II"]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1893002"},["text","Evacuation (Word War II)"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"38"},["name","Coverage"],["description","The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1893003"},["text","California"]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1893004"},["text","1940s"]]]]]]],["tagContainer",["tag",{"tagId":"34"},["name","Military"]],["tag",{"tagId":"22"},["name","Minority Groups"]]]],["item",{"itemId":"134389","public":"1","featured":"1"},["fileContainer",["file",{"fileId":"20826"},["src","https://history.santacruzpl.org/omeka/files/original/bd7f8d25e454a64ba0dca9b694d0dcb0.pdf"],["authentication","6a5f948fd7268b098f861ef418506a52"],["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"7"},["name","PDF Text"],["description"],["elementContainer",["element",{"elementId":"94"},["name","Text"],["description"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1899607"},["text","Go for Broke: 442nd Regimental Combat Team\nBy Tracy L. Barnett\n\nNisei unit fought with distinction—Japanese–American GIs recount stories of war\nWATSONVILLE—Nobody has to tell Tom Goto he's a hero. Long ago, he gave away the official recognition of his bravery:\na Purple Heart. He's not one to tell war stories. After 50 years, he still shakes his head quietly and says, \"I don't need to\nremember those things. I'd rather forget.\"\nLeft for dead with a belly full of shrapnel in the Vosges Mountains of France, Goto says it's enough to just be alive. The\nself-effacing silence of Goto and his companion of the \"Go For Broke\" 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team kept a\ngeneration of Japanese–American heroes in the shadows of U.S. history for decades. Scores of the former members of\nthe most-decorated military unit in World War II came from Santa Cruz County, most from Watsonville.\nIt was members of the 442nd who shot the lock off the gate at Dachau; they fought their way through the Vosges\nMountains to rescue the \"Lost Battalion.\" They accomplished the deadly ambush of Italy's Gothic Line, climbing a cliff in\nsilence and total darkness as some fell to their deaths without uttering so much as a whimper.\nUntil now, they've kept their history folded away in the closet along with their medals. But the time has come for their\nstory to be told. \"I think the ice has been broken, and it's OK to talk now,\" said Terri DeBono, a Monterey filmmaker who\njust completed a documentary on the 442nd, \"Beyond Barbed Wire.\" The Film will cap off the Pacific Rim Film Festival\nwith a Monday screening at the Fox Theater in Watsonville, follow by a reception for the veterans.\n\"They're so full of humility, self-effacing; they give credit to everyone else but themselves,\" said DeBono. \"They'll tell you\nwhat their buddy did, but they won't tell you what they did.\"\nDeBono and her partner Steve Rosen, who directed the film, befriended Monterey veteran Yokio Sumida and his wife,\nMollie.\nYokio finally said, \"If we don' tell this story, who will?\"\nWe were just amazed at the story of these small men and what they were asked to do. They were put at the head of\nmany of the battles and were so determined prove their loyalty.\nThey were fighting like mad men. ... I can't believe we don't know this story, that it slipped by the pages of history.\nSome of the men went straight from the internment camps to the front lines. Others, like Santa Cruz native Henry Arao\nand Watsonville native Yoshio Fujita left their families behind in the camps to take on some of the War's most difficult\nand dangerous assignments.\nArao, who left behind his father, four brothers and two sisters in the Poston, Ariz. internment camp shrugs off the irony.\n1\n\n�\"We figured we wanted to show them that we were just as much an American as anyone else.\"\nEtched into his memory is the sight of companion Sadao Minamari, who threw himself onto a grenade to save his squad\nfrom almost certain death. Arao was only about 100 feet away at the time. Minamari received a posthumous Medal of\nHonor, America's highest military decoration.\nArao doesn't like to talk about it, but his own Distinguished Service Cross and Purple Heart are locked away in a safedeposit box. He received the honor for dashing out into a clearing to save the life of his wounded squad leader during\nthe fateful rescue of the Lost Battalion.\nIn \"The Lost Battalions: Going for Broke in the Vosges\" by Soquel resident Franz Steidl, the Alamo Regiment (so named\nbecause of their San Antonio origin) had been cut off for six days in the fall of 1944 without food and water in the heavy\nforests of the Vosges Mountains of eastern France. The 442nd was sent into the rugged terrain to rescue the surrounded\nsoldiers. A barrage of machine gun fire and mortars from the German troops on the hilltop rained down on the men,\ntaking them out in droves.\n\"The worst was the tree bursts,\" said Goto, describing the explosions of mortars in the treetops that rained hot metal\nand splinters down on the men. \"You can hear it whistling before it comes down, but by then it's too late.\"\nThe dense growth of the Vosges forest was legendary, lending a Vietnam-like quality to the nightmarish experience.\nThe big difference from Vietnam, however, was the bitter cold. Soldiers slept in the snow, were pelted by rain and\nimpeded by fog so thick they could barely see their hands in front of their faces. Soldiers suffered from frostbite and\ntrench foot so severe they could barely walk; some had to have their boots cut off when they finally made their way\nback.\n\"The daytime sun doesn't penetrate there; it's dark as hell,\" said Goto. \"We said, 'Go for Broke,' but there was really no\nalternative. There was no place else to go.\"\nThe battalion was left with three times as many casualties as the number of men they rescued. More than 100 were\nkilled in the four day charge.\n\"We were charging uphill all the time, and they [the Germans] were just sitting on the hill waiting for us with machine\nguns,\" said Arao \"They had the hills loaded with mines. If you walked in the wrong spot, you'd get your leg blown off—\nand a lot of men did. We actually didn't have a chance.\"\nArao, who became leader of his squad of 17 when his own squad leader was hit by a mortar burst has also been silent\nabout the ordeal for 50 years. Finally, with great deal of urging, he's begun to talk.\n\"I went into that deal with 17 men and only four made it out,\" he said. \"It just seems like it wouldn't be right to talk too\nmuch about it. I lost a lot of good people, but I was lucky enough to come home.\"\nJapanese–American soldiers during WWII had to fight two battles: one against the Nazis, the other against\ndiscrimination. As then-President Harry S. Truman put it, they won both.\nYoshio Fujita served as a scout and a communications man during the war, stringing miles of wire along the rough\nterrain to connect the telephones the troops used. He doesn't talk much about the internment camp where his family\nstayed, sleeping in converted horse stalls. But when he thinks of the unfair treatment his fellow Japanese Americans\nconfronted, his eye tear with the rage of injustice.\nThe signs were everywhere, even in his hometown of Watsonville: \"No Japs Allowed.\" He finally decided he couldn't take\nanymore. One day, before he was shipped overseas, he went into a restaurant to confront the owner:\n\"How come you've got that sign up?\" he demanded of the first person he saw, a waiter.\n2\n\n�\"Can't you read? It means what it says,\" retorted the man.\n\"I can read,\" Fujita responded evenly. \"But I'm going to go over protect your hide, and you'd better take that damned\nthing down or you're not going to have any windows and doors left in this place. I'm going to tear them all down.\"\nFujita served in the 522nd Field Artillery unit of the 442nd, the unit that opened the gates at Dachau, freeing the Nazi\nconcentration camp victims. He never saw the camp, because he was one of the ones sent ahead, but he heard the\nstories. He confronted a well-dressed Jew on the streets before the rescue and asked him how he came to be free.\n\"I'm not like those stupid ones in the camp who opposed Hitler,\" said the man, as Fujita recalls it. \"I work with the Nazis,\nand I'm fat and happy and I smoke good cigars.\"\nFujita's eyes tear again with disbelief. \"I don't understand how he could live with himself,\" he said.\nThe 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team was 4,500 strong, but members received 18,143 individual decorations for\nbravery, including nearly 10,000 Purple Hearts. Thirty-eight members of the team came from Santa Cruz County, of a\ntotal of nearly 100 Santa Cruz County residents who served during World War II.\nNearly 20 of them served in military intelligence, using their linguistic skills to penetrate enemy lines, break secret codes,\ntranslate documents and perform a variety of other tasks. Two were the brothers of retired Watsonville High School\nhistory teacher Mas Hashimoto, who served out the war in the internment camps.\nHashimoto said he has been trying to get local vets to tell their story for years. He doesn't mince words when he speaks\nof the treatment of the Nisei, the first-generation American-born children of Japanese parents, during the war. The\n442nd was used as cannon fodder, he believes, time and time again being sent into situations deemed too dangerous for\nwhite soldiers.\n\"They were expendable,\" said Hashimoto. \"At first no one wanted the Japanese Americans. Again and again, they got\nthe dirty jobs.\"\nHashimoto tells the story of Merle's Marauders, the Nisei troops who parachuted into the jungles of Burma. Fourteen\nNisi linguists were among them.\n\"They were the ones who not only captured Japanese documents and translated them, they endured unbelievable\ncasualties; of 2,000 guys, only about 200 survived. They went through hundreds and hundreds of miles of jungle and\nwent beyond what anyone could be expected to endure.\"\nHis brother, Tadashi Hashimoto on detached service to the Marine Corps, served in the Pacific Islands and Japan. Serving\nin the islands was especially difficult for Japanese–Americans, who were fired on by both sides: the Japanese, who saw\ntheir American uniforms, and the Americans, who saw their Japanese features.\n\"He was good at interrogating the prisoners, at getting them loosen up and talk about their commanders and regiment,\"\nsaid Hashimoto. \"He didn't wear a helmet, because he didn't want to shot by his Marine buddies. And at night he was to\nstay in the tent and come out only in daylight; otherwise, he'd be shot.\"\nTo DeBono, the men of the 442 have marked a unique place in history.\n\"These are not war stories; to me it's the story of the human spirit,\" she said, \"We're talking about matters of the heart\nhere.\"\n\n3\n\n�Sources\n\n\nThis article originally appeared in the Santa Cruz County Sentinel, April 27, 1999 (p. 1) and is copyrighted by\nthe Sentinel. It is used here with permission.\n\nThe content of this article is the responsibility of the individual author. It is the Library's intent to provide accurate local history\ninformation. However, it is not possible for the Library to completely verify the accuracy of individual articles obtained from a\nvariety of sources. If you believe that factual statements in a local history article are incorrect and can provide documentation,\nplease contact the Webmaster.\n\n4\n\n�"]]]]]]]]],["collection",{"collectionId":"8"},["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"1"},["name","Dublin Core"],["description","The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/."],["elementContainer",["element",{"elementId":"50"},["name","Title"],["description","A name given to the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"123576"},["text","Santa Cruz History Articles"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"41"},["name","Description"],["description","An account of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"123577"},["text","Original articles by library staff and by local authors and material from historical books. 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