["itemContainer",{"xmlns:xsi":"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance","xsi:schemaLocation":"http://omeka.org/schemas/omeka-xml/v5 http://omeka.org/schemas/omeka-xml/v5/omeka-xml-5-0.xsd","uri":"https://history.santacruzpl.org/omeka/items/browse?advanced%5B0%5D%5Belement_id%5D=49&advanced%5B0%5D%5Btype%5D=is+exactly&advanced%5B0%5D%5Bterms%5D=Ohlone&sort_field=Dublin+Core%2CCreator&output=omeka-json","accessDate":"2024-03-29T03:04:29-07:00"},["miscellaneousContainer",["pagination",["pageNumber","1"],["perPage","10"],["totalResults","9"]]],["item",{"itemId":"130741","public":"1","featured":"1"},["fileContainer",["file",{"fileId":"13845"},["src","https://history.santacruzpl.org/omeka/files/original/45b78e7b5309ee5dede50d1182ac03bf.pdf"],["authentication","0c3b4da062aaaa9d9e0cefb74dd24956"],["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"7"},["name","PDF Text"],["description"],["elementContainer",["element",{"elementId":"94"},["name","Text"],["description"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1894877"},["text","An Overview of Ohlone Culture\nBy Robert Cartier\n\nIn the 16th century, (prior to the arrival of the Spaniards), over 10,000 Indians lived in the central California coastal areas\nbetween Big Sur and the Golden Gate of San Francisco Bay. This group of Indians consisted of approximately forty\ndifferent tribelets ranging in size from 100–250 members, and was scattered throughout the various ecological regions\nof the greater Bay Area (Kroeber, 1953). They did not consider themselves to be a part of a larger tribe, as did wellknown Native American groups such as the Hopi, Navaho, or Cheyenne, but instead functioned independently of one\nanother. Each group had a separate, distinctive name and its own leader, territory, and customs. Some tribelets were\naffiliated with neighbors, but only through common boundaries, inter-tribal marriage, trade, and general linguistic\naffinities. (Margolin, 1978).\nWhen the Spaniards and other explorers arrived, they were amazed at the variety and diversity of the tribes and\nlanguages that covered such a small area. In an attempt to classify these Indians into a large, encompassing group, they\nreferred to the Bay Area Indians as \"Costenos,\" meaning \"coastal people.\" The name eventually changed to\n\"Coastanoan\" (Margolin, 1978). The Native American Indians of this area were referred to by this name for hundreds of\nyears until descendants chose to call themselves Ohlones (origination uncertain).\nUtilizing hunting and gathering technology, the Ohlone relied on the relatively substantial supply of natural plant and\nanimal life in the local environment. With the exception of the dog, we know of no plants or animals domesticated by\nthe Ohlone. Some plant species were, however, cultured by deliberate pruning, burning, and reseeding that encouraged\nthe growth of selected plants for use as food, herbs, medicines, and manufacturing in their material culture.\nPlants utilized by the Ohlone cover a wide range of grasses, shrubs, and tree forms, but the mainstays in the daily diet\ncan be narrowed down to a few major examples. Acorns were probably the most important of the plant foods, with\ntanbark oak, black oak, valley oak, and coastal live oak supplying the acorn meal that came to be predominant in the\nOhlone diet. Other plants recorded as being part of the diet included: buckeye and laurel nuts, and the seeds of dock,\ntarweed, chia, holly leaf cherry, and digger pine. Among the berries gathered and consumed are blackberries,\nelderberries, gooseberries. and madrone berries. Roots, shoots, and the bark of a number of other plants were also used\nas food and herbs.\nHunting, trapping, and in some cases, poisoning game were common pursuits for most of the adult males in Ohlone\nculture. Larger game animals that were hunted included deer, elk, bear, and antelope, with whale, sea lion, otter, and\nseal also being hunted on the coast. Smaller animals that were occasionally eaten included rabbits, tree and ground\nsquirrels, rats, skunks, mice, moles, dogs, snakes, and lizards. Many species of birds were hunted or trapped; among\nthese were geese, ducks, doves, robins, quail, and hawks. Along the major freshwater ways on the coast, fish were a\nregular food item. The more important fish included steelhead trout, salmon, sturgeon, and lampreys. Shellfish were\n\n1\n\n�extremely important to the Ohlone. For the people who lived near Monterey and San Francisco bays, the most\ncommonly eaten shellfish were mussels, abalone, clams, oysters, and hornshell from the tidelands.\nA few animals were never eaten by some or all of the Ohlone, apparently for religious or supernatural reasons. These\ncreatures included eagles, owls, ravens, buzzards, frogs, and toads.\nWe see reflected in the subsistence patterns and the food available, the development of specialized tools for food\nacquisition. The tools and diagnostic pathologies in the skeletal remains of Ohlones encountered in burials allude to this.\nGrinding implements such as mortars, pestles, metates, and manos substantiate the manner of acorn and other seed\nprocessing. Scrapers, drills, and knives fashioned from sharp stones indicate the working of skins and vegetable\nmaterials, whereas dart and arrow points were used for hunting and warfare. Anatomical patterns displayed in skeletal\nremains are frequently found as dental wear (i.e. extreme abrading of teeth from the sand in stone-ground food), or\npathologies in the long bones caused by periodic starvation.\nThe Ohlones were skilled in crafts and made useful and aesthetically pleasing tools, weapons, and items of adornment.\nThey made projectile points, scrapers, and knives from Monterey—banded and Franciscan chert, obsidian, and other\nhard-substance rocks. They also used bone, shell, and wood for much of their material culture (Heizer and Whipple,\n1971).\nFinely cut, chiseled, and polished shells were turned into beautifully designed necklaces, pendants, and earrings; they\nwere also applied to belts, baskets, and clothing. Feathers were used in great quantities in the making of cloaks, headdresses, belts, and baskets.\nHighly informative to the archaeologist are the trading patterns that occurred in Ohlone culture. They have left a tale of\nmovement and interaction over central California, and even the West Coast. Several hundred different types of trade\nitems have been documented for California Indians and discussed in the categories of food, beads and ornaments,\nhousehold wares, clothing and attire, raw materials, finished articles, and miscellaneous goods (Heizer, 1978). Shell and\nshell beads were the most frequently reported trade items by native informants (Davis, 1974). The shell trade items\nindicate extensive trade networks from central coastal California to as far as the Great Basin of Nevada, where a string of\nOlivella beads dating to 8,600 B.P. was found. Specific sizes and shapes of shell artifacts are so standard for Ohlone and\nother cultures in California that they prove to be sensitive time markers when found in an archaeological context.\nAnother important trade item to the Ohlone was the highly coveted cinnabar which was quarried at the New Almaden\narea of Santa Clara County. Cinnabar expeditions came from as far away as Walla Walla, Washington to trade or fight for\nthe prized pigment. Mission records from Mission Santa Clara note that the Indians of Santa Cruz and Santa Clara\nseemed to have been fighting incessantly over the rights to the cinnabar deposit. In 1841, Indians from Tulare and\nSacramento came as a regular cinnabar expedition to the quarry and one of the intruders was killed by the Santa Clara\nOhlones.\nIncluded in other important trade goods imported or exported in Ohlone culture were abalone shells, projectile points,\nobsidian, dogs, tobacco, hides, bows, baskets, salt, acorns, and fish (Davis, 1974).\nEight social groups in the lands of the Ohlone were separately distinguished ethnic units. Contrasts in dialect or\nlanguage, customs of dress and ornamentation, particular religious beliefs, kinship patterns, and to some degree,\nsubsistence mainstay distinguish these units. From north to south, the eight subethnic groups recognized in\nprotohistoric times were the Karkin, Chochenyo, Ramaytush, Tamyen, Awaswas, Mutsin, Rumsen, and the Chalon.\nFrom the studies of Levy (1970), we arrive at the following estimated populations for the eight Ohlone groupings as of\n1770.\n\n2\n\n�Subgroups or Language Groupings\n\nLocation\n\nEstimated\nPopulation\n\nKarkin\n\nSouth edge of Carquinez Strait\n\n200\n\nChochenyo\n\nEast of San Francisco Bay, Livermore\nValley, Mission San Jose\n\n2,000\n\nRamaytush\n\nSan Mateo and San Francisco\nCounties\n\n1,400\n\nTamyen\n\nSouth San Francisco Bay and Santa\nClara Valley\n\n1,200\n\nAwaswas\n\nBetween Davenport and Aptos in\nSanta Cruz\n\n600\n\nMutsun\n\nPajaro River drainage\n\n2,700\n\nRumsen\n\nLower Carmel, Salinas, and Sur\nRivers\n\n800\n\nChalon\n\nUpper Salinas Drainage\n\n900\n\nPopulation and Location of Ohlone in 1770 A.D.\n\nIn the vicinity of the Alma-Adobe site and CA-SC1-1, the language group at the time of missionary contact would have\nbeen the Ramaytush. From information available, we may also assume that the particular tribelet at the site was the\nPuichun.\nOhlone culture is seen in this ethnographic sketch as a world in which the people had a close physical and psychological\nbond to the environment and to the customs of a small society. For some village members, their entire existence might\nbe spent within a radius of ten to fifteen miles of their natal village. Each rock, spring, tree, and creek was known\nintimately. A heritage of thousands of years lay under the Ohlones' feet as most of the major villages contained deep\ndeposits, built from the debris of daily life, that sealed the remains of the Ohlone past. The ethnographic story of the\nOhlone is occasionally rich with knowledge about a life that was so incredibly different from the civilization that now\nstands in its stead; while on the other hand it is an incomplete story, or only a rough outline, with gaps as yet\nundiscovered and untold.\n\n3\n\n�Sources\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThis article is an excerpt, originally called \"Ethnographic Background\", from a 1991 report titled, The Santa's\nVillage Site CA-SCr=239. This report was the result of an archaeological dig by the Field Methods in\nArchaeology Class of De Anza College, which was led by Robert Cartier. The report was prepared by Robert\nCartier with Laurie Crane, Cynthia James, Jon Reddington, and Allika Ruby. RAP-ed. Copyright 1991 Robert\nCartier. Reproduced by permission of Robert Cartier. The other sources are references from that article.\nDavis, J.T. Trade Routes and Economic Exchange Among the Indians of California\". California Publications of\nArchaeology, Ethnography, and History, No.3. Ramona: Ballena Press, 1974.\nHeizer, R.F., ed. Handbook of North American Indians: California, Vol. 8. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian\nInstitution, 1978.\nHeizer, R.F. and M.A. Whipple. The California Indians, a Source Book. Second Ed. Berkeley: University of\nCalifornia Press, 1971.\nKroeber, Alfred L. Handbook of Indians of California. Berkeley: California Book Company, Ltd., 1953.\nLevy, R. \"Coastoan Internal Relationships\". Paper presented to the Ninth Conference on American Indian\nLanguages, San Diego; Manuscript in Levy's possession.\nMargolin, M. The Ohlone Way—Indian Life in the San Francisco Monterey Bay Area. Berkeley: Heyday Books,\n1978.\n\nThe content of this article is the responsibility of the individual author. It is the Library's intent to provide accurate local history\ninformation. However, it is not possible for the Library to completely verify the accuracy of individual articles obtained from a\nvariety of sources. If you believe that factual statements in a local history article are incorrect and can provide documentation,\nplease contact the Webmaster.\n\n4\n\n�"]]]]]]]]],["collection",{"collectionId":"8"},["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"1"},["name","Dublin Core"],["description","The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. 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The content of the articles is the responsibility of the individual authors.\r\n"]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"264220"},["text","It is the library's intent to provide accurate information. However, it is not possible to completely verify the accuracy of individual articles obtained from a variety of sources. If you believe that factual statements in an article are incorrect and can provide documentation, please contact the library."]]]],["element",{"elementId":"45"},["name","Publisher"],["description","An entity responsible for making the resource available"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"264216"},["text","Santa Cruz Public Libraries\r\n"]]]]]]]],["itemType",{"itemTypeId":"1"},["name","Document"],["description","A resource containing textual data. 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The report was prepared by Robert Cartier with Laurie Crane, Cynthia James, Jon Reddington, and Allika Ruby. "]]]],["element",{"elementId":"47"},["name","Rights"],["description","Information about rights held in and over the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1839909"},["text","Copyright 1991 Robert Cartier. 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Also included are more than 350 full-text local newspaper articles on films and movie-making and on the Japanese-American internment.
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Also included are more than 350 full-text local newspaper articles on films and movie-making and on the Japanese-American internment.
In addition, this is an online index for births, deaths, and personal names from The Mountain Echo. The complete print index is available at the library. For more information see The Mountain Echo."]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1840007"},["text","Most of the indexed articles are available on microfilm in the Californiana Room or in the clipping files in the Local History Room at the Downtown branch. Copies of individual articles may be available by contacting the Reference Department - Ask Us.
\n"]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1894645"},["text","While there is some overlap between this index and the Historic Newspaper Index (approximately 1856-1960), they are different databases and are searched separately."]]]],["element",{"elementId":"45"},["name","Publisher"],["description","An entity responsible for making the resource available"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1839995"},["text","Santa Cruz Public Libraries"]]]]]]]],["itemType",{"itemTypeId":"1"},["name","Document"],["description","A resource containing textual data. 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Their homelands reached from the tip of the\nSan Francisco peninsula, around the eastern shores of San Francisco Bay, along the coast and throughout the\nSanta Cruz Mountains, beyond Monterey to Point Sur, and throughout the Santa Clara Valley eastward to the\nMount Hamilton Range. Throughout these lands their imprint remains. Huge mounds of ancient village\nmidden now blend with the gently rolling, oak studded foothill landscape. Traces of fishing camps are found\nwhere salmon and steelhead were netted as they raced up countless streams in staggering numbers each\nwinter. Outcroppings of bedrock used for grinding the abundant harvest of acorns are now hidden beneath\ngrasses and brush where extensive groves of tanoak once grew. The people themselves lie in carefully planned\ncemeteries beneath today's urban landscape, placed there with reverence and ceremony over the millennia.\nThe life the people led was very different from that of their descendants today, and seems even more\nunfamiliar to the people whose lives and work now order changes upon the ancient landscape. The Ohlone\npeople, who once numbered 10,000 or more over their entire land and at least 600 in several villages in and\naround Santa Cruz, were nearly annihilated under the impact of the expanding European population of the\neighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Decimated by non-native diseases, parted from their extended families\nduring mission residence, often hunted for sport or vengeance, the survivors dispersed to the hinterlands of\ntheir country. Many quietly accepted invisibility under the shield of a borrowed culture, while the elders\nbecame the caretakers of the languages and traditional ways of their people.\nWhat is known of the Ohlone has been extracted from the historical records of their observers and from\ninformation shared by the Ohlone themselves. Hand-bound books of births, deaths, marriages and baptisms\nkept by the Spanish era missions provide village place names and kinship records. The diaries and sketches of\nbotanists, artists, explorers and tradesmen of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries provide\ndescriptions of native and mission activities. The field notes of nineteenth and twentieth century\nethnographers record remnants of languages and lifeways collected for study in the new American\n1\n\n�anthropological and ethnological institutions. Ohlone descendants today share knowledge inherited from their\ngrandmothers, providing insight to the harmonious interchange of natural, spiritual and human worlds.\nArchaeologists have prepared reports from surveys and excavations of prehistoric Ohlone sites and those of\nsurrounding culture areas. The studies analyze and compare artifactual material, and plot the distribution of\nrelated archaeological sites across the landscape. Their work seeks answers to questions concerning the\nmigratory origins of the people, the time depths of their village occupations, strategies the people used to\ncompensate for stresses of overpopulation, and their long term adaptation to climate changes that profoundly\naffected their social and economic organization. A history compiled from all these sources is summarized here,\nin order that the people of Santa Cruz today might obtain a clearer view of the ancient lifeways that left their\nmark in the form of archaeological deposits. These archaeological sites have become our inheritance from a\npeople whose voices have been for the most part stilled.\n\nBefore the Ohlone Came\nThe earliest Californians are believed to have entered through mountain passes some thirty thousand years\nago. As bands of hunters followed migratory game close to the end of the last ice age, they traversed a now\nsubmerged land bridge connecting the northernmost portion of the Asian and North American continents.\nTheir route carried them east and south through plains and mountain passages over a period of several\nthousand years. Their camps were placed in close proximity to the lakes and marshlands that formed\nimportant habitat for the large game they sought. These early hunters entered California through the Owens\nValley, reaching the southern California coast approximately 20,000 years ago. Coastal archaeological sites left\nby the earliest arrivals are believed to lie beyond the present shoreline, where they were inundated as the\ngreat continental ice sheets receded under the warming climate.\nArchaeological sites dating from eight to twelve thousand years before the present date (B.P.) have been\nfound with more frequency, positively dated by carbon-14 and other laboratory methods. The stone and bone\ntools and food remains contained in those deposits speak of a people whose survival depended on the ability\nto disband and follow migratory large game and waterfowl They processed local seed-bearing plants by\ngrinding the hard seeds with handstones against a flat stone metate. These ground stone implements and\ndistinctively shaped spear points and knife blades now identify their campsites. A recently excavated\narchaeological site in Scotts Valley produced material with a carbon-14 date of about 10,000 B.P., indicating\nthat these early hunter/gatherers preceded the better known Ohlone in the Santa Cruz area.\nInformation from other sources also support an early date for occupancy of the central coast. An Ohlone\nspokesman in the San Francisco Bay area has related an ancestral oral tradition describing the course of his\npeople's settlement of that area. The tribal history recalls a cataclysmic inundation of San Francisco Bay,\nseparating the Ohlone from their native home among the Miwok of the Sierra Nevada foothills, where they\nhad planned to return with traded coastal goods. Linguistic analysis of the Ohlone language as it was recorded\nin the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries confirmed the close relationship between the geographically\nseparated Ohlone and Miwok languages. The language of the neighboring Eselen people below Carmel was\nfound to be not only unrelated to Ohlone, but far more ancient. Geologists have extracted core samples from\nthe floor of San Francisco Bay, which have confirmed through analysis of layered deposits that the bay was\nonce a wide, lush valley watered by flowing streams prior to the formation of the bay about 9000 to 12,000\n2\n\n�years ago. These data all suggest the presence of an early hunter/gatherer culture in Santa Cruz County who\nwere eventually displaced to the outskirts of their territory. They were forced away by the imposed barriers of\ngeological changes combined with an influx of people from the central valley and Sierra foothills.\nArchaeological sites from the following culture period, dated from 8000 to 4000 B.P., are found with even\ngreater frequency throughout California. These sites were left by people who settled in to specialize in the\nprocessing and use of local plant and animal resources. Typically these sites are large, indicating a cohesive\nvillage structure and establishment of food gathering and trade resource territories where they occur along\nthe coast, within inland valleys, and in mountain passes.\nThe ancestors of the Ohlone apparently co-existed alongside the earlier hunters of this area as they adapted\nto the use of abundant marine resources along the stabilized shoreline. One continuous complex of sites has\nbeen recorded along a stream just outside the Santa Cruz city limits which appears to date from this period, as\ndo others in the Pajaro Valley. The locations and contents of the midden deposits indicate that the people\nmoved from one established camp to another on a seasonal basis, taking advantage of both inland and coastal\nproducts. They traded outside their territory for traditionally used materials this area lacked. Their preference\nfor campsite locations was repeated by later historic period settlers, who also selected the advantages of\nadequate water, warm southern exposures, and relatively flat terrain for their initial settlement ventures.\nBecause of this selection process, it is probable that many archaeological sites of such antiquity were\nobliterated in the process of nineteenth and twentieth century settlement of the city of Santa Cruz. Some of\nthe prehistoric middens remaining alongside no longer existing marshes and watercourses near downtown\nSanta Cruz might be expected to provide evidence of these early marine adapted people.\nThe period of settling in and adapting to coastal resources was followed by one of tremendous population\nincrease throughout the state from 4000 to 1500 B.P. The population increase was apparently related to the\nrapid diffusion of techniques for processing and storing acorns, which provided a high quality protein in an\neasily stored form for a staple food. With the adaptation to efficient use and storage of acorns, permanent\nvillages were established for wintering over in the areas close to desirable food and trade resources.\nThe large, more sedentary population required a more complex tribal social organization than was necessary\nfor the earlier mobile bands, in order to deal with the increasing complexities of food distribution, marriage\nalliances, trade and warfare. Some indication of the importance of particular individuals or lineages over other\nvillagers during this period is evidenced by the increase in decorative and useful grave goods accompanying\ncertain burials. The accumulation of goods for burial implies individual wealth and status, possible only with\nthe compliance of the larger group in the dedicated, time-consuming preparation of objects intended for\nburial with the deceased. The internal arrangements of some larger cemeteries from this period have also\nshown an emerging pattern of status differentiation. In these cemeteries, people of importance or power are\nburied with a profusion of exotic grave goods in the cemetery center, while those with fewer grave goods\nwere placed in concentric circles or groupings outward from center.\n\nPeople of the West\nBy 500 A.D., 1500 years before the present, the speakers of the eight Ohlone languages dominated\nthroughout the Ohlone territory, while speakers of the older Hokan languages had been displaced to the north\nand south. The Ohlone rise to dominance and changing social organization may be reflected in the remaining\n3\n\n�cemeteries that were partially destroyed in the process of construction of several Santa Cruz commercial and\nresidential projects in recent years. At least one of the larger Santa Cruz village sites, near the mouth of the\nSan Lorenzo River, is thought to have been established during this period of complicated political and\neconomic change.\nThe period from 500 A.D. to contact with European cultures in the eighteenth century is one for which there\nare many records and inferences. During this period, the people who greeted the Spanish land expeditions and\nwere given the Spanish name \"Costaños\" (Coast People) by them, became politically organized into the tribal\nunits recognized and recorded by missionaries and later ethnographers. Early in this period, the people living\nin and around Santa Cruz established themselves as a significant link in an intricate chain of exchange that\nextended to Sonoma County, Santa Barbara County, and the eastern Sierra Nevada. The trade network\ndistributed coastal shell to the Sierra Miwok and Mono people, where it was worked into beads used as\nmarkers of wealth and exchange value. Salt and dried abalone were valued by the inland Yokuts people,\nwhose territory had to be traversed and traders dealt with on journeys to the east. In return, obsidian for tools\nand ceremonial objects, pinon nuts and other exotic foods, and highly valued magnesite and cinnabar ore\nwere brought to the coast villages. The Chumash of Santa Barbara were contacted for steatite (soapstone),\nwhich was carved into bowls and ceremonial pieces. The Pomo of the interior coast ranges of Sonoma County\nprovided an alternative source for obsidian. The extent of this trade network, stretching as it did across\nlanguage boundaries and foreign territories, required a specialized trading language, a well developed clam\nshell disc bead economy, and above all critical marriage and kin alliances in strategically located villages along\nthe trade routes.\nThe coastal people and their villages were described with interest by the Europeans who came into contact\nwith them. \"A well looking, affable people,\" recalled a geographer on Vizcaino's 1602 visit to Monterey Bay\n\"and very ready to part with everything they have. They are also under some form of government...\" More\nthan a century and a half later, Pedro Fages described their good features, light skin, and long moustaches.\n\"They are very clever at going out to fish in rafts of reeds,\" he added. A Franciscan priest observed their \"...\ncomely elegance of figure, quite faultless countenance ... (their) hair kept arranged or in a closely woven small\nnet ... quick-witted, fond of trading, and tractable.\" They were sketched in skin capes and fiber skirts at their\ndaily work, sketched on the bay in their tule reed boats, sketched at play in games of skill and chance,\nsketched partaking in their \"peculiar habit\" of daily bathing, and sketched in ceremonial dress of deeply\ncontrasting body paint, feather headdressings, and abalone shell pendants. What changes their organized\ncommunity lives and personal habits underwent as Europeans came to dominate their home places, their\nabundant local foods, and their order of family, government and belief. When encountered after 1770 they\nwere sketched in woolen mission robes as they sat dispirited in small, quiet groups, appearing to their\nobservers as sullen, disagreeable, dark and filthy.\nThe native villages visited by early explorers were described as clusters of dome-shaped reed-covered houses\nwith an assortment of granary structures, work shelters, a large meeting house in the central tribal village, and\nthe always present temescal or sweathouse for daily bathing. The people were settled in large, organized\nvillages ranging from 50 to 500 in population, with a number of smaller, seasonally occupied special use sites\nin association with the permanent village. In Santa Cruz, the largest village housed about 200 people. Special\nuse sites in Santa Cruz included quarries and workshops where the local stone tool resource, Monterey\nbanded chert, was extracted and worked into a variety of knives, arrow points, skin and fiber scrapers, and\ndrills for manufacturing beads. In the forests, hunting blinds of piled rock were placed near game trails, often\n4\n\n�with pecked rock art nearby. Fishing camps were established along the streams, where nets and traps were\nconstructed and installed. Shellfish processing sites were established above the rocky shores where abalone,\nmussels, clams and various tidepool resources were gathered.\nAcorn processing was done within or near the groves of oak where well-located outcroppings of bedrock\nprovided a place for grinding mortars to be formed. The women also made use of portable hopper mortars,\nwhich were shallow ground-stone bowls upon which an open bottom basket was cemented. Landmark shrines\nwere visited for observing astronomical events and religious ceremonies. A multitude of other activities left\nfew material traces: specially dedicated meadows where rabbits were driven and captured in the spring by the\nentire village populace; hunting trails following ridges and canyons; particular tracts of land saved for the\ngathering of special basketry materials; personal shrines and landmarks from which individual powers were\nrenewed; and ceremonial caves and shelters whose uses were kept secret from prying anthropologists eager\nto interview the grown great-grandchildren of the 18th century Ohlone.\n\nThe Ohlone Landscape Today\nIt is difficult to observe the radically changed Santa Cruz landscape today and imagine the abundance of\nwater, wildlife and plant life that formed the Ohlone landscape. Neary Lagoon was surrounded by campsites\noccupied by groups of families while useful plants and migratory waterfowl were gathered. Once captured\nwith the hunter's trickery of cunningly made decoys and mimicked calls, the birds were used not only for food,\nbut were transformed into feather capes and blankets, ceremonial costumes, bone whistles and flutes, and\nbone basketry awls. The air would be dense with the rising and settling of waterfowl, while the now extinct\ntule elk gathered in great herds around the shoreline. Thick stands of tule reed penetrated the lagoon, so\nabundant and strong they were gathered and woven into mats for protective house coverings and cushioned\nbedding, or were tied into long bundles for the construction of fishing and transport boats that plied Monterey\nBay.\nA large village, probably the one called \"Aulintak\" in mission records and later ethnographies, commanded a\nview of the lagoon, the bay, the San Lorenzo River, and several other villages to the north, east, and west from\nits vantage point on Beach Hill. This village was fully occupied when Mission Santa Cruz was established\nnearby in 1791, one mile upstream on the San Lorenzo River. The type of shell bead found in the\narchaeological deposits of Aulintak may indicate that its antiquity reaches back 2000 years. The Westlake area,\nwith its abundant rushing streams and springs, was the site of an exceptionally large, activity zoned village,\npossibly the one called \"Chalumu\" in later records. The people of Aulintak and Chalumu spoke one of the eight\nOhlone languages called Awaswas, in which they communicated with their neighbors at Hotochtak, believed\nto be north of the present city, and at Sokel, Aptos, Sayant, Achistaca and Uypen. The names of today's\nvillages of Soquel, Aptos and Zayante communicate a far more ancient history than is evidenced by their\nlandmark wooden buildings dating to a century ago.\nThe Ohlone beyond Davenport spoke an entirely different language called Ramaytush. It was in Ramaytush\nterritory that the village of Olxon was located. The name \"Ohlone\" was taken from this place, which has now\ncome to be the preferred designation used to refer to all the groups that spoke the eight \"Costanoan\"\nlanguages. The central valley Yokuts and the Sierra Miwok apparently referred to all the coastal traders as\nOhlone, which has been translated from Miwok as \"people of the west\".\n5\n\n�Beyond the Awaswas speakers below Aptos, the Ohlone spoke another language called Mutsun. The Mutsun\nspeakers had their own name for the villages of Santa Cruz, calling them Hardeon. The Mutsun were living in a\ncentral village at Kalenta-ruk on the Pajaro River in 1769, when they were given an unexplained, enormous\nfright by the appearance of mounted Spanish soldiers of the Portola expedition. The people of Kalenta-ruk left\nan extremely large stuffed bird totem at the site of their village when they fled, so impressing the Spanish that\nthey gave their own name for \"bird\" to the river at Kalenta-ruk. Below the Mutsun, the Rumsen of Monterey\nspoke a dialect much more closely related to Awaswas than to their immediate Mutsun neighbors. This\npuzzling bit of information may hint of recently active displacement of the coastal people in the Pajaro\nValley/Elkhorn Slough area.\nThe people of Aulintak and Chalumu followed a seasonal rhythm as they collected the bounty of their land.\nThe spring brought tender shoots of edible plants, along with a proliferation of young animals and edible\ninsects. The summer brought harvests of grasses for basketry and fiber, bulbs, roots, seeds, fruits and berries\nfrom hundreds of edible and useful plants. Deer were hunted with sinew-backed bow and arrow in the tall\ngrass meadows, where the hunter brought the curious animals into breathtakingly close range by mimicry of\nthe deer's movements in deerskin decoys worn draped over the hunter's body. Autumn brought the acorn\nharvest, which occupied the intense concentration of all the villagers in the gathering, preparation of pits for\nleaching and baking, and for the ceremony that accompanied the yearly harvest. Wild geese and ducks were\ncaptured in the lagoons, fish were harpooned or netted in the rivers, lagoons and bay, and sea mammals were\ncaptured on and off shore. Shellfish were a staple as important as the acorn, and were regularly gathered.\nPreparations for winter included the burning of great expanses of meadow and forest, to encourage the new\nplant growth preferred by the Ohlone and the browsing animals they hunted. Winter rains brought the influx\nof salmon and steelhead, and movement from the hills to more favorably located winter villages. Throughout\nthe winter the women worked on their exquisite basketry, which is now world renown for its beauty and\nintricacy of design. Stores of acorns, dried fish and meat, seeds and nuts were tapped through the winter to\nsupplement the leaner diet. Within the communal houses, elders repeated tribal oral traditions, passing on\nthe accumulated wisdom of several thousand years of their world history. Ceremony, song, dance and fable\nconstantly reinforced the people's sense of their part in the rhythm of the universe, weaving them into the\nfabric of sun, moon, stars, earth, water, and the earth's other living creatures. That rhythm was irreparably\nbroken with the onset of European cultural dominance over their lands.\n\nWe Share an Inheritance\nToday the villages of Aulintak and Chalumu lie beneath the houses, streets, schools and businesses of Santa\nCruz. The descendants of the Ohlone care for their ancestral home in spirit, and more frequently now in anger\nwhen carefully interred remains are wrenched from their graves in the unrelenting face of modern\ndevelopment. Of the 230 Ohlone archaeological sites recorded in Santa Cruz County by mid-1980, fourteen\nwere found within the Santa Cruz city limits. These covered the range from large villages to small special use\nsites. Of the fourteen recorded sites, five have been destroyed beyond nearly all scientific value, either by\nnatural erosion or construction throughout the entire site without benefit of archaeological investigation.\nEight have been disturbed in part by construction of houses or roads, or are partially eroded away, but appear\nto contain intact portions either beneath surface disturbance or in areas adjacent to modern construction.\nPortions of the Delaveaga area contain sites where chert tools were repaired and re-worked, leaving large\n6\n\n�amounts of chipping waste in the midden soil. There also exist areas near UCSC that include small multiple use\ncampsites, areas of Seabright where shellfish were processed for food and ornaments, and areas of Westlake\nassociated with Chalumu where chert was worked from raw material into useful tools and projectile points. An\narea near Pogonip exists where tools were reworked, and where diarists of Portola's expedition described\ntemescals, the sweathouses used for ritual and daily bathing. Areas around Neary Lagoon still contain portions\nof much larger sites where any number of the marsh associated activities would have taken place.\nOnly one site has been recorded that remains free from modern disturbance, defined as a hunting camp from\nits surface debris, where game was apparently butchered and distributed among the hunting party. Other sites\nare likely to exist unrecorded, perhaps concealed under silty layers of alluvial wash, perhaps covered by\nparking lots or suburban vegetation, or hidden in brushy canyons now made impenetrable by dense chaparral\nthe Ohlone would have burned away each fall. This fragile, depleted archaeological wealth is our inheritance\nfrom the past. Preserved with care, and excavated with the integrity of explicitly scientific research, the sites\ncan be expected to provide answers to our remaining questions about the Ohlone and their predecessors.\nThese answers can arm us with knowledge for facing the future, when we can expect economic fluctuations,\npopulation stresses, and climatic changes to act upon those of us who now live in Santa Cruz. We are the new\n\"people of the west\", stewards of the past with the responsibility and power to preserve what remains for the\nfuture.\n\nRecommended Additional Readings\nA summarization such as the preceding cannot begin to describe in any detail the richness and variety of\nCalifornia Indian culture. The following are readily available sources for those wishing to further their\nunderstanding of the Ohlone and other California Indians. Asterisk (*) indicates exceptional sources. All were\navailable in 1980, when the Archaeological Resources Protection Amendment was presented to the public.\n\nBallena Press, Box 1366, Socorro, New Mexico 87801\nPublishers of scholarly writings on Calif., Southwest, and Great Basin ethnohistory. List available.\nBean, Lowell J. and Thomas Blackburn, authors\nNative Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective. Ramona: Ballena Press. 1971. Collection of papers on\nCalifornia Indian social organization.\nBean, Lowell John and Thomas F. King, authors*\nAntap: California Indian Political and Economic Organization. Ramona: Ballena Press. 1974.\nAnthropological descriptions of organizational systems employed by various tribal groups.\nCoyote Press*, P.O. Box 3377, Salinas, CA 93912\nPublishers of locally written manuscripts dealing with the archaeology and ethnohistory of the central\ncoast.\n\n7\n\n�Davis, J.T.\nTrade Routes and Economic Exchange among the Indians of California. Berkeley: U.C. Archaeological\nSurvey Reports. 1961. Details the incredible variety of exchange goods and extensive trade system of\nprehistoric California.\nDeetz, James\nInvitation to Archaeology. Garden City: The Natural History Press. 1967. Explanation of the reasons for,\nand results of, archaeological methods.\nFages, Pedro*\nExpedition of Pedro Fages to the San Francisco Bay, 1770. H. E. Bolton, ed. San Francisco: Academy of\nPacific Coast History. 1911. Translated diary of early land expedition.\nGamman, John K.\nThe Ohlone Indians-People of the West: Their use of natural resources. Unpublished Senior Thesis at\nSpecial Collections, UCSC McHenry Library. 1973. Study of seasonal food gathering by ecozones.\nGordon, Burton L.*\nMonterey Bay Area: Natural History and Cultural Imprints. Pacific Grove: Boxwood Press. 1974.\nEvolution of the Monterey Bay area landscape, detailing man's manipulation of natural resources.\nMore recent revised edition now available.\nHeizer, Robert F. *\nThe Costanoan Indians. Local History Studies, Vol. 18. Cupertino: California History Center, De Anza\nCollege. 1974. Thorough survey of Costanoan/Ohlone culture.\nHeizer, Robert F., editor\nThey Were Only Diggers. Newspaper accounts of persecution against the California Indians in the 19th\ncentury.\nHeizer, R.F. and M.A. Whipple *\nThe California Indians: A Source Book. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press.\n1971. Collection of papers on the material culture and social organization of all California tribes.\nJackson, Robert\nAn Introduction to the Historical Demography of Santa Cruz Mission and the Villa de Branciforte, 17911846. Unpublished Senior Thesis, Special Collections, UCSC McHenry Library. Includes reconstruction of\npopulation patterns of local Ohlone and effects of missionization.\n\n8\n\n�Kessler, Christina *\nOhlone: Native Americans of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Areas. Unpublished Honors Senior\nThesis, Special Collections, UCSC McHenry Library. 1974. Carefully researched, well written paper\nexploring the lifeways of the Ohlone and European impact on their culture.\nKroeber, A.L.\nHandbook of the Indians of California. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. 1925. Classic California\nIndians handbook, republished in paperback by Dover, New York, 1976.\nKroeber, Theodora\nIshi in Two Worlds. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1961. Detailed account of lifeways as\nexplained to anthropologists by last surviving Yahi, 1911-1916.\nLevy, Richard\n‘The Costanoan’, pp. 485-495 in Handbook of the North American Indians, Vol. 8, California.\nWashington: Smithsonian Institution. 1978. Recent survey of Costanoan/Ohlone culture, synthesizing\nrecent work with emphasis on linguistic origins.\nLewis, Henry T.\nPatterns of Indian Burning in California: Ecology and Ethnohistory. Ramona: Ballena Press. 1973.\nReferences for burning as a method of agriculture.\nMargolin, Malcolm *\nThe Ohlone Way. Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area. Berkeley: Heyday Books. 1978. A\nsensitive, beautifully written description of the Ohlone way of life, with excellent bibliography.\nPalou, Fray\nFrancisco Historical Memoirs of New California. H.E. Bolton, ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.\n1926. Translated journals of travels in Alta California.\nSanta Cruz Archaeological Society *, 1305 East Cliff Drive, Santa Cruz 95062.\nPublishers of SCAN, Santa Cruz Archaeological Notes; present films, speakers, activities related to the\npreservation of archaeological sites in Santa Cruz County. Meetings third Thursday monthly, City\nNatural History Museum.\nSanta Cruz City Museum *, 1305 East Cliff Drive, Santa Cruz CA 95062.\nNatural History museum in Seabright, with excellent display on California Indians and good bookstore.\nSanta Maria, Fray Vicente *\nThe First Spanish Entry into San Francisco Bay. John Galvin, ed. San Francisco: J. Howell, Publisher.\nSensitive portrayal of Bay Area Ohlone before missionization.\n\n9\n\n�Smith, Charles R. *\n‘In Harmony with the Earth: Heritage Significance among the Ohlone’, in Archaeological Evaluation of\nCA-SCR-158 by J. Bergthold, G.S. Breschini, and T. Haversat. Salinas: Coyote Press, 1980. Examination of\nattitudes held by Ohlone and other Native Americans towards the desecration of their sacred sites by\ndevelopment and archaeologists.\n\nSources Consulted in the Preparation of this Manuscript\nPersonal Communications\nBaker, Suzanne\nArchaeological Consultants, San Francisco, CA. Personal communication regarding recent excavations at CASCR-12, the \"Beach Hill\" site. July 1980.\nCartier, Robert\nArchaeological Resource Management, San Jose, CA. Personal communication regarding recent excavations in\nScotts Valley. July 1980.\nMathes, Eric\nConsulting Artist, graphics and illustrations, Santa Cruz, CA. Personal communication regarding appearance of\nOhlone landscape. July, 1980.\nOrozco, Patrick\nOhlone Indian Cultural Association, Watsonville, CA. Personal notes and communications, 1975 - 1978;\naddress to the Santa Cruz Archaeological Society, 1975.\n\nUnpublished Papers and other collected manuscripts in public and private collections\nBall, Francine\n\"Mortuary Customs and Beliefs of the Costanoan Indians.\" Unpublished class paper, in possession of\nDepartment of Special Collections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1974.\nBreschini, Gary S. and Trudy Haversat\n\"Archaeological Overview of the Central Coast Counties, Draft for Comment,\" in possession of Regional Office\nof the California Archaeological Site Survey, Aptos CA. 1979.\nEdwards, Robert L. and MaryEllen [Ryan] Farley\n\"Assessment of the Cultural Resources of the Lower Pajaro River Basin, California, with selected field study.\"\nContracted manuscript in possession of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco, CA. 1974.\nGamman, John K.\n\"The Ohlone Indians - People of the West: Their Use of Natural Resources.\" Student Paper no. ES 144 N, in\npossession of Department of Special Collections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1973.\n\n10\n\n�Kessler, Christina\n\"Ohlone: Native Americans of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Area.\" Honors Thesis, in possession of\nDepartment of Special Collections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1974.\nKessler, Christina Mary\n\"People of the West.\" Student paper, in possession of Department of Special Collections, McHenry Library,\nUniversity of California Santa Cruz. 1974.\nKoster, George H.\n\"The San Lorenzo River, Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.\" Thesis, in possession of Department of Special\nCollections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1975.\nKrumbein, William J.\n\"Natural Bridges State Beach History.\" Undated typescript in possession of Department of Special Collections,\nMcHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz.\nMorris, Joseph and Allan Lonnberg\n\"Santa Cruz County Prehistoric Settlement Pattern Analysis: A Preliminary Report.\" Student paper in\npossession of Department of Special Collections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1975.\nRyan Farley, MaryEllen\n\"California Indians of the Central Coast.\" Typescript for slide illustrated lecture program, in possession of Santa\nCruz City Museum. 1973.\nSimmons, Terry\n\"The Status and Future of Archaeology in the Santa Cruz Region.\" Thesis, in possession of Department of\nSpecial Collections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1978.\nSpencer, Lois\n\"The Costanoan Indians: Bibliography.\" Typescript in possession of Department of Special Collections,\nMcHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1971.\nSwift, Carolyn\n\"A Sampler: Indians of Santa Cruz County.\" Student paper in possession of Library, Cabrillo College, Aptos CA.\n1971.\nVarious authors and dates\nFiles and confidential records of the Regional Office of the Californian Archaeological Site Survey, Aptos, CA.\nUsed in this manuscript:\nSanta Cruz County Archaeological Site Records, 3 volumes, including CA-SCR-12, -24, -25, -80, -87, -89, -93, -94,\n-106, -114, -116, -142, -187, -189.\nSanta Cruz County Archaeological Impact Evaluations: No. E-14, -21, -23, -32, -51, -64, -103, -159, -165, -174, 177, -178, -179, -200, -208, -211, -215, -218, -235, -243, -255, -275, -276, -298, -309, -313, -317, -331, -336, 342.\nWeiner, Ann Lucy\n\"Mechanisms and Trends in the Decline of Costanoan Population.\" Thesis, in possession of Department of\nSpecial Collections, McHenry Library, University of California Santa Cruz. 1979.\n11\n\n�Published Sources\nEdwards, Rob\n‘5400 Years on the Santa Cruz Coast’, article in Volume 3 Number 3, Santa Cruz Archaeological Notes.\nSanta Cruz: Santa Cruz Archaeological Society.\nGordon, Burton L.\nMonterey Bay Area: Natural History and Cultural Imprints. Pacific Grove: Boxwood Press. 1974.\nHeizer, Robert F.\nThe Costanoan Indians. Local History Studies, Vol. 18. Cupertino: California History Center. 1974.\nHeizer, R.F. and M.A. Whipple\nThe California Indians: A Source Book. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1971.\nKroeber, A.L.\nHandbook of the Indians of California. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1925.\nLevy, Richard\n‘The Costanoan’, pp. 485-495 in Handbook of the North American Indians, Vol. 8, California.\nWashington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1978.\nMargolin, Malcolm\nThe Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area. Berkeley: Heyday Books. 1978.\nMathes, W. Michael\nA Brief History of the Land of Calafia: The Californias 1533 - 1795. San Francisco: the author.\nNemeric, Jan\n‘Edible Plants of Santa Cruz used by Aborigines’, article in Loganberry: A Santa Cruz Magazine, second\nedition. Santa Cruz: UCSC Environmental Studies Department. 1973.\nSmith, Charles R.\nIn Harmony with the Earth: Heritage Significance among the Ohlone, in Archaeological Evaluation of\nCA-SCR-158 by J. Bergthold, G.S. Breschini, T. Haversat. Salinas: Coyote Press. 1980.\n\nSource\nPrepared as a narrative accompaniment to the Archaeological Resources Protection Amendment, Historic\nPreservation Plan of the City of Santa Cruz. For the City of Santa Cruz Planning Department under provision of\nP.O. No. 09894.\n\n12\n\n�MaryEllen Ryan\nHistorical Investigations\nJuly 28, 1980\n© Copyright MaryEllen Ryan. Reproduced with the permission of MaryEllen Ryan and the City of Santa Cruz.\n\nIt is the library’s intent to provide accurate information, however, it is not possible for the library to completely\nverify the accuracy of all information. If you believe that factual statements in a local history article are\nincorrect and can provide documentation, please contact the library.\n\n13\n\n�"]]]]]]]]],["collection",{"collectionId":"8"},["elementSetContainer",["elementSet",{"elementSetId":"1"},["name","Dublin Core"],["description","The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/."],["elementContainer",["element",{"elementId":"50"},["name","Title"],["description","A name given to the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"123576"},["text","Santa Cruz History Articles"]]]],["element",{"elementId":"41"},["name","Description"],["description","An account of the resource"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"123577"},["text","Original articles by library staff and by local authors and material from historical books. "]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"264219"},["text","Articles on Santa Cruz County history, many with illustrations, are available here.\r\n\r\nThe Santa Cruz Public Libraries is grateful to our local historians and their publishers for giving permission to include their articles. The content of the articles is the responsibility of the individual authors.\r\n"]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"264220"},["text","It is the library's intent to provide accurate information. However, it is not possible to completely verify the accuracy of individual articles obtained from a variety of sources. If you believe that factual statements in an article are incorrect and can provide documentation, please contact the library."]]]],["element",{"elementId":"45"},["name","Publisher"],["description","An entity responsible for making the resource available"],["elementTextContainer",["elementText",{"elementTextId":"264216"},["text","Santa Cruz Public Libraries\r\n"]]]]]]]],["itemType",{"itemTypeId":"1"},["name","Document"],["description","A resource containing textual data. 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Also included are more than 350 full-text local newspaper articles on films and movie-making and on the Japanese-American internment.
In addition, this is an online index for births, deaths, and personal names from The Mountain Echo. The complete print index is available at the library. For more information see The Mountain Echo."]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1840007"},["text","Most of the indexed articles are available on microfilm in the Californiana Room or in the clipping files in the Local History Room at the Downtown branch. Copies of individual articles may be available by contacting the Reference Department - Ask Us.
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Also included are more than 350 full-text local newspaper articles on films and movie-making and on the Japanese-American internment.
In addition, this is an online index for births, deaths, and personal names from The Mountain Echo. The complete print index is available at the library. For more information see The Mountain Echo."]],["elementText",{"elementTextId":"1840007"},["text","Most of the indexed articles are available on microfilm in the Californiana Room or in the clipping files in the Local History Room at the Downtown branch. Copies of individual articles may be available by contacting the Reference Department - Ask Us.
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